The Schmalkaldic League Reformation War

The Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes and cities that pledged to protect each other from any religiously motivated attack lasted for sixteen years. The Reformation had further divided Europe already fragmented by cultural, economic and political differences. In the Holy Roman Empire, which covered much of central Europe, the newly Lutheran princes clashed with their Emperor: he was the secular head of the Catholic Church and they were part of a heresy. They banded together to survive. The Empire Divides In the mid-1500s the Holy Roman Empire was a piecemeal grouping of over 300 territories, which varied from large dukedoms to single cities; although largely independent, they all owed some form of loyalty to the Emperor. After Luther ignited a massive religious debate in 1517, via the publication of his 95 Theses, many German territories adopted his ideas and converted away from the existing Catholic Church. However, the Empire was an intrinsically Catholic institution, and the Emperor was the secular head of a Catholic Church that now regarded Luthers ideas as heresy. In 1521 Emperor Charles V pledged to remove the Lutherans (this new branch of religion was not yet called Protestantism) from his kingdom, with force if necessary. There was no immediate armed conflict. The Lutheran territories still owed allegiance to the Emperor, even though they were implicitly opposed to his role in the Catholic Church; he was, after all, the head of their empire. Likewise, although the Emperor was opposed to the Lutherans, he was hamstrung without them: the Empire had powerful resources, but these were split amongst hundreds of states. Throughout the 1520s Charles needed their support - militarily, politically and economically - and he was thus prevented from acting against them. Consequently, Lutheran ideas continued to spread amongst the German territories. In 1530, the situation changed. Charles had renewed his peace with France in 1529, temporarily driven the Ottoman forces back, and settled matters in Spain; he wanted to use this hiatus to reunite his empire, so it was ready to face any renewed Ottoman threat. Additionally, he had just returned from Rome having been crowned Emperor by the Pope, and he wanted to end the heresy. With the Catholic majority in the Diet (or Reichstag) demanding a general church council, and the Pope preferring arms, Charles was prepared to compromise. He asked the Lutherans to present their beliefs at a Diet, to be held in Augsburg. The Emperor Rejects Philip Melanchthon prepared a statement defining the basic Lutheran ideas, which had now been refined by nearly two decades of debate and discussion. This was the Confession of Augsburg, and it was delivered in June 1530. However, for many Catholics, there could be no compromise with this new heresy, and they presented a rejection of the Lutheran Confession entitled The Confutation of Augsburg. Despite it being very diplomatic - Melanchthon had avoided the most contentious issues and focused on areas of probable compromise - the Confession was rejected by Charles. He instead accepted the Confutation, consented to a renewal of the Edict of Worms (which banned Luthers ideas), and gave a limited period for the heretics to reconvert. The Lutheran members of the Diet left, in a mood which historians have described as both disgust and alienation. The League Forms In a direct reaction to the events of Augsburg two leading Lutheran princes, Landgrave Philip of Hesse and Elector John of Saxony, arranged a meeting at Schmalkalden, in the December of 1530. Here, in 1531, eight princes and eleven cities agreed to form a defensive league: if one member were attacked because of their religion, all the others would unite and support them. The Confession of Augsburg was to be taken as their statement of faith, and a charter was drawn up. Additionally, a commitment to provide troops was established, with a substantial military burden of 10,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalries being split amongst the members. The creation of leagues was common in the early modern Holy Roman Empire, especially during the Reformation. The League of Torgau had been formed by Lutherans in 1526, to oppose the Edict of Worms, and the 1520s also saw the Leagues of Speyer, Dessau, and Regensburg; the latter two were Catholic. However, the Schmalkaldic League included a large military component, and for the first time, a powerful group of princes and cities appeared to be both openly defiant of the Emperor, and ready to fight him. Some historians have claimed that the events of 1530-31 made an armed conflict between the League and the Emperor inevitable, but this might not be the case. The Lutheran princes were still respectful of their Emperor and many were reluctant to attack; indeed, the city of Nuremberg, which remained outside the League, as opposed to challenging him at all. Equally, many Catholic territories were loath to encourage a situation whereby the Emperor could restrict their rights or march against them, and a successful attack on the Lutherans could establish an unwanted precedent. Finally, Charles still wished to negotiate a compromise. War Averted by More War These are moot  points, however, because a large Ottoman army transformed the situation. Charles had already lost large parts of Hungary to them, and renewed attacks in the east prompted the Emperor to declare a religious truce with the Lutherans: the Peace of Nuremberg. This canceled certain legal cases and prevented any action being taken against the Protestants until a general church council had met, but no date was given; the Lutherans could continue, and so would their military support. This set the tone for another fifteen years, as Ottoman - and later French - pressure forced Charles to call a series of truces, interspersed with declarations of heresy. The situation became one of intolerant theory, but tolerant practice. Without any unified or directed Catholic opposition, the Schmalkaldic League was able to grow in power. Success One early Schmalkaldic triumph was the restoration of Duke Ulrich. A friend of Philip of Hesse, Ulrich had been expelled from his Duchy of Wà ¼rttemberg in 1919: his conquest of a previously independent city caused the powerful Swabian League to invade and eject him. The Duchy had since been sold to Charles, and the League used a combination of Bavarian support and Imperial need to force the Emperor to agree. This was seen as a major victory among the Lutheran territories, and the Leagues numbers grew. Hesse and his allies also courted foreign support, forming relationships with the French, English, and Danish, who all pledged varying forms of aid. Crucially, the League did this while maintaining, at least an illusion of, their loyalty to the emperor. The League acted to support cities and individuals who wished to convert to Lutheran beliefs  and harass any attempts to curb them. They were occasionally pro-active: in 1542 a League army attacked the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbà ¼ttel, the remaining Catholic heartland in the north, and expelled its Duke, Henry. Although this action broke a truce between the League and the Emperor, Charles was too embroiled in a new conflict with France, and his brother with problems in Hungary, to react. By 1545, all of the northern Empire was Lutheran, and numbers were growing in the south. While the Schmalkaldic League never included all of the Lutheran territories - many cities and princes remained separate - it did form a core amongst them. The Schmalkaldic League Fragments The decline of the League began in the early 1540s. Philip of Hesse was revealed to be a bigamist, a crime punishable by death under the Empires legal Code of 1532. Fearing for his life, Philip sought an Imperial pardon, and when Charles agreed, Philips political strength was shattered; the League lost an important leader. Additionally, external pressures were again pushing Charles to seek a resolution. The Ottoman threat was continuing, and almost all of Hungary was lost; Charles needed the power that only a united Empire would bring. Perhaps more importantly, the sheer extent of Lutheran conversions demanded Imperial action - three of the seven electors were now Protestant and another, the Archbishop of Cologne, appeared to be wavering. The possibility of a Lutheran empire, and maybe even a Protestant (although uncrowned) Emperor, was growing. Charless approach to the League had also changed. The failure of his frequent attempts at negotiation, although the fault of both sides, had clarified the situation - only war or tolerance would work, and the latter was far from ideal. The Emperor began to seek allies amongst the Lutheran princes, exploiting their secular differences, and his two greatest coups were Maurice, the Duke of Saxony, and Albert, Duke of Bavaria. Maurice hated his cousin John, who was both the Elector of Saxony and a leading member of the Schmalkaldic League; Charles promised all of Johns lands and titles as a reward. Albert was persuaded by an offer of marriage: his eldest son for the Emperors niece. Charles also worked to end the Leagues foreign support, and in 1544 he signed the Peace of Crà ¨py with Francis I, whereby the French King agreed not to ally with Protestants from within the Empire. This included the Schmalkaldic League. The End of the League In 1546, Charles took advantage of a truce with the Ottomans and gathered an army, drawing troops from across the Empire. The Pope also sent support, in the form of a force led by his grandson. While the League was quick to muster, there was little attempt to defeat any of the smaller units before they had combined under Charles. Indeed, historians often take this indecisive activity as evidence that the League had a weak and ineffectual leadership. Certainly, many members distrusted each other, and several cities argued about their troop commitments. The Leagues only real unity was Lutheran belief, but they even varied in this; additionally, the cities tended to favor simple defense, some princes wanted to attack.The Schmalkaldic War was fought between 1546-47. The League may have had more troops, but they were disorganized, and Maurice effectively split their forces when his invasion of Saxony drew John away. Ultimately, the League was beaten easily by Charles at the Battle of Mà ¼hlberg, where he crushed the Schmalkaldic army and captured many of its leaders. John and Philip of Hesse were imprisoned, the Emperor stripped 28 cities of their independent constitutions, and the League was finished. The Protestants Rally Of course, victory on the field of battle doesnt translate directly into success elsewhere, and Charles swiftly lost control. Many of the conquered territories refused to reconvert, the papal armies withdrew to Rome, and the Emperors Lutheran alliances swiftly fell apart. The Schmalkaldic League may have been powerful, but it was never the sole Protestant body in the Empire, and Charless new attempt at religious compromise, the Augsburg Interim, displeased both sides greatly. The problems of the early 1530s reappeared, with some Catholics loathe to crush the Lutherans in case the Emperor gained too much power. During the years 1551-52, a new Protestant League was created, which included Maurice of Saxony; this replaced its Schmalkaldic predecessor as a protector of the Lutheran territories  and contributed to the Imperial acceptance of Lutheranism in 1555. A Timeline for the Schmalkaldic League 1517  - Luther begins a debate on his 95 Theses.1521  - The Edict of Worms bans Luther and his ideas from the Empire.1530  - June - The Diet of Augsburg is held, and the Emperor rejects the Lutheran Confession.1530  - December - Philip of Hesse and John of Saxony call a meeting of Lutherans in Schmalkalden.1531  - The Schmalkaldic League is formed by a small group of Lutheran princes and cities, to defend themselves against attacks on their religion.1532  - External pressures force the Emperor to decree the Peace of Nuremberg. Lutherans are to be temporarily tolerated.1534  - Restoration of Duke Ulrich to his Duchy by the League.1541  - Philip of Hesse is given an Imperial pardon for his bigamy, neutralizing him as a political force. The Colloquy of Regensburg is called by Charles, but negotiations between Lutheran and Catholic theologians fail to reach a compromise.1542  - The League attacks the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbà ¼ttel, expelling the Catholic Duke.1544  - Peace of Crà ¨py signed between the Empire and France; the League lose their French support.br/>1546  - The Schmalkaldic War begins.1547  - The League is defeated at the Battle of Mà ¼hlberg, and its leaders are captured.1548  - Charles decrees the Augsburg Interim as a compromise; it fails.1551/2  - The Protestant League is created to defend the Lutheran territories.

The Cartesian Cogito By Rene ́ Descartes - 1513 Words

The Cartesian Cogito In â€Å"Meditation Two† of Meditations, Objections, and Replies, ReneÃŒ  Descartes argues that we cannot doubt our own existence. Descartes’s Cogito argument is actually stimulated by the â€Å"numerous† â€Å"false opinions† (9) in â€Å"Meditation One†, which he believed true in his youth but now doubts and attempts to attack through his own writing. Descartes’s doubts involve three stages. The first doubt concerns sense illusion. In other words, Descartes formerly maintained that we obtained truth â€Å"either from the senses or through the senses† (10). He declares that senses can sometimes deceive us, but in a sense, some of them cannot be doubted. Such an argument can be proved by his sense of his own body. Then, in order to prove such†¦show more content†¦He concludes in the beginning passages of â€Å"Meditation Two† that such a â€Å"pronouncement ‘I am, I exist’ is necessarily true every time [he] utter[s] it or conceive[s] it in [his] mind† (13). Based on the conclusion that â€Å"I am something† or â€Å"I am; I exist – that is certain† (15), Descartes explores his Cogito argument in â€Å"Meditation Two†. First of all, another question immediately follows such a conclusion: if such something – â€Å"I† – necessarily exists, what it is? Or what is such an â€Å"I†? Descartes first shows the evolution of his own meditations about this question. He once divided â€Å"I† into â€Å"the body† and â€Å"the soul†, the latter of which refers to â€Å"a rarefied I-know-not-what†, â€Å"the power of self-motion, [†¦] of sensing or of thinking†, or â€Å"some supremely powerful and [†¦] malicious deceiver† (14). Nevertheless, he not only shows his current â€Å"discovery†: â€Å"thought exists; it alone cannot be separated from me†; but also claims: â€Å"I am a true thing and am truly existing†, â€Å"I a m [†¦] a thinking thing; that is, a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason† (15). Then, by taking his perception of a piece of wax as an example, Descartes aims to prove his Cogito argument: â€Å"I am† â€Å"[a] thing that thinks. [†¦] A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses, and that also imagines and senses† (15). In comparing the differences of his perceptions of the same piece of wax at room temperature and being heated – â€Å"clos[ing] to the fire†, Descartes observes two differentShow MoreRelatedThe Theory Of The Mind Body Dualism1232 Words   |  5 PagesRenà © Descartes was a French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher of the 16th Century, who, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, â€Å"was one of the first to abandon scholastic Aristotelianism and created the first version of the modern mind-body dualism or emotion† (Encyclopedia Britannica). Born on March 31, 1596, he was dubbed as the Father of Modern Philosophy. 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Economic indicators Free Essays

Economic indicators are used to predict future financial and economic trends. These may include unemployment rates, housing rates, inflation rates etc. There are primarily there types of indicators: Lagging Indicators are those indicators that follow an event. We will write a custom essay sample on Economic indicators or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is generally used to confirm a pattern or indicate an event that is about to occur.   The most popular and commonly used lagging indicator is unemployment. For example a high unemployment rate would indicate that the economy is doing poorly and that companies may anticipate a downturn in future. Other examples of lagging indicators include interest rates, labor costs etc. Lagging indicators usually indicate economic events and changes that follow a particular pattern or trend. They may be used to confirm long term trends but are not very effective in predicting them. (Investopedia) Contemporaneous Indicators are economic events that occur within the same period of time. For example a rise in interest rates is usually associated or is contemporaneous with an increase in inflation. Or high personal income rates are contemporaneous with a strong economy. Leading Indicators are those indicators that signal future events. The most common example of a leading indicator is bond yields. These can be used to anticipate and speculate trends in the stock market. Leading indicators may be used to predict changes in the economy but are not always accurate. An overview of four leading economic indicators is as follows: Stock Market Returns Production Work Week Money Supply Inventory Changes 1. Stock Market Returns Stock market indicators are used to determine when to buy and sell stocks in either a bull or bear market.   These indicators help investors determine the viability of purchasing stocks of a particular company as well as identify that company’s stock value or growth prospects. Common stock market indicators include market cap (total dollar value of all outstanding shares), Price/Earnings Ratio (valuation of a firm’s current share price compared to its per-share earnings), Return on Equity (measure of a company’s profitability), Dividend Yield (income produced by a share of stock) and Price To Book Ratio (comparing a stock’s market value to its book value).   Stock market indicators are primarily used to project financial or economic trends in the stock market and can provide valuable insight about the national output i.e. the GDP and the economic growth of a country. (Superior Investor: Stock Market Resources) 2.   Production Work Week This indicator measures the length of the average work week of production workers in a manufacturing setting.   This is an important indicator as it helps determine monthly industrial production as well as personal income of workers. It is also an important indicator of labor market conditions and can help track developments in areas which can have an impact on the economy. It can provide important information about major economic variables.   For example it can help determine average earnings which help gauge or indicate potential inflation. It can also convey important information about the employment opportunities and unemployment levels of a particular economy. 3.   Money Supply Another common leading economic indicator is money supply. This indicator measures the total supply of money in circulation in a country’s economy at a particular point in time. Money supply is measured in many ways. The most widely used are M1, M2 and M3. M1 refers to the currency in circulation and back checking accounts. It includes all coins, publicly held currency, traveler’s checks, checking accounts and credit union accounts; M2 includes M1 plus any money in savings accounts, small time deposits, overnight repurchase agreements and non-institutional money market accounts. M3 is M2 plus large time deposits, term repurchase agreements and institutional money market accounts. (Leading Economic Indicators: Money Supply TSC Glossary) The money supply indicator is useful in controlling inflation and to ensure that money demand remains stable. It also has a powerful effect on economic activity. An increase in money supply stimulates spending while a decrease results in decreased spending. Decreased spending may result in a decline in economic activity and can cause disinflation or deflation. Money supply is directly linked to inflation. If money supply is growing faster than the real GDP, inflation may result. (MindXpansion on Money Supply) 4. Inventory Changes This indicator measures sales and inventories for the manufacturing, wholesale and retail sectors of the economy. It provides data on the rate of inventory accumulation which in turn helps determine the current pace of economic growth and may also help predict the future pace of economic growth. (Economic Indictors – Federal Reserve Bank of New York) An example of an inventory change indicator is the Inventory to Sales ratio which measures the number of months it takes to deplete existing inventory. Inventory indicators provide important information about economic growth. For example if inventories are accumulating at a rapid pace, it may indicate a slowdown in economic growth in the near future as manufacturers may cut down production to ensure inventories are in line with sales. Similarly, if inventories are growing slowly or decreasing, it may indicate a growth in the economy in the near future and a pick up in production. Works Cited Information about Economic Indicators. Investopedia.com. 27th December 2006. http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/177.asp Money Supply Indicator. TCS Glossary. 1st January, 2007. https://www.thestreet.com/tsc/basics/tscglossary/moneysupply.html Money Supply Indicator. MindXpansion. 1st January, 2007. http://www.mindxpansion.com/options/money.php How to cite Economic indicators, Essay examples Economic Indicators Free Essays Housing starts lowest in months Housing starts are the number of new residential construction projects that a re being done at a given time. When housing starts are particularly low it could mean bad news for the economy and also for both large and small businesses. If houses are not being built, pep people are not spending money on the initial construction. We will write a custom essay sample on Economic Indicators or any similar topic only for you Order Now If there’s not construction, there a re no jobs being created. If there are no homes being built then their are no homebuilders esp. ding money on the items to furnish their homes. Therefore small and large businesses are not a able to generate business. 2. ) Fed lowers discount rate and interest rates tumble When the Federal discount rate is low, interest rates tend to be lower as well. This could be a bad indicator for the economy because most times lowering interest rates is a technique used to try to stimulate the economy. The economy only needs stimulated when it is NT doing so well. Once the interest rates are lowered people are more likely to be able to borrow w which will be read for the economy and for large and small businesses. When money is boo rowed, it will then be spent, creating a boost in the overall economy. 3. ) Retail sales up 4 percent over last month Retail sales being up is a very positive indicator for the economy. It means that t people are spending money, which means people are making money. This is also good n sews for both small and large businesses because when sales are higher in small business, more product must be ordered from the larger businesses. 4. ) Business debt down from last year Business debt being lower can be both a good and bad indicator for the icon mom. It’s bad because it could mean that businesses are less confident and worried about t aging on more debt. It’s good in the sense that overall, businesses are making enough money to eke pep themselves out of debt. This is especially good for small businesses. Less debt can be bad of r larger businesses that are involved with debt collection, for obvious reasons. 5. ) Businesses are buying more electronic equipment Businesses buying more electronic equipment could be both a bad and a go indicator. It’s bad because it is indicating that some businesses are replacing people with electric Ionics or machines which will decrease the need for human labor. When that need is lowered it will show a decrease in the job market and ultimately raise unemployment rates. The buy Wing and selling of electronic equipment is good because with the higher demand for any type of product comes more jobs for the larger businesses, the manufacturers. It could also be good for both larger and small businesses, not just the retailers but also the tech support and repair b sinuses. How to cite Economic Indicators, Papers

Close examination of afterwards By Thomas Hardy Essay Example For Students

Close examination of afterwards By Thomas Hardy Essay This coursework from www.essaybank. co. uk (http://www. essaybank. co. ukfree_coursework/42. html) Reproduction or retransmission in whole or in part expressly prohibited wwgd gdw esgdgds aygd gdba ngd kcgd gduk! he secretiveness would help explain the distance that seems to be between him and the rest of the human beings around him. This distance is further achieved by the fact that there are never any names mentioned, or any suggestion of family or relationships. For example one may say,which is typically impersonal. Stanza four moves from describing the animals that the narrator identifies with, and is more focussed of the narrator and his idea of the people around him. It is different from the previous stanzas in that there is no movement within it, which is appropriate because Hardy is describing the time when the narrator has been stilled at last. The focus switches from the visual nature the narrator is so utterly familiar with, to the full starred heavens that winter sees. wwef efw esefefs ayef efba nef kcef efuk: Therefore he is thinking about the unknown, and the life that awaits him after he dies. Again there is the use of personification for winter, as there was for spring, which is important as it signifies the end of the seasonal cycle where things wither and die. Continuing this somewhat disconsolate tone, the beginning of the last stanza seems to give up on human nature. It asks, and will any say when my bell of quittance is heard in the gloom. This brings you back to the closure suggested in the first stanza, where he describes the gate closing on his life. The image of the bell contrasts to the silence of the previous stanzas, especially the one immediately preceding it. It describes the sound dying, and then rising again as a new bells boom. The alliteration again helps the line move quickly, suggesting the speed that people rush around. The onomatopoeic word boom suggests the loud noise that people make, contrasting to the peace and tranquility of the nature and animals that he describes. The poem ends by asking if the people will say, he hears it not now but used to notice such things? This sums up the whole poem, which is expressing how people will not ask these questions. from www. essaybank. co. uk wwfg fgw esfgfgs ayfg fgba nfg kcfg fguk!wwaf afw esafafs ayaf afba naf kcaf afuk: The refrains bring in the new voice in each stanza, having the effect of uniting each one. The meaning of each of the final lines never really changes, achieving the realization that the narrator knows that he will never change the views of the people around him. Hardy is criticizing human nature for not stopping long enough to reflect on what is really meaningful in peoples lives. Therefore in conclusion the repetition of the first line, that ends the poem sums up the whole idea that nothing has actually been resolved. It emphasizes the complexity of nature and the amount of things that goes unnoticed every day and night. Hardy employs various techniques to make the poem come alive, which is crucial in showing his appreciation of what is going on around him. He uses extensive imagery, so that it is both visual, such as by describing the colours, and the explicit detail that is in every small thing that he describes. The silence is also transmitted effectively by word choice such as soundless blink. It is also effective in identifying his affinity with animals, as opposed to human beings .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb , .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .postImageUrl , .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb , .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb:hover , .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb:visited , .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb:active { border:0!important; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb:active , .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u2fa4656584c00557e8de32748cf616eb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: French and Indian War EssayThis document was downloaded from Coursework. Info The UKs Coursework Database http://www. coursework. info/ This document was downloaded from Coursework. Info The UKs Coursework Database http://www. coursework. info/ This document was downloaded from Coursework. Info The UKs Coursework Database http://www. coursework. info/ This document was downloaded from Coursework. Info The UKs Coursework Database http://www. coursework. info/ This document was downloaded from Coursework. Info The UKs Coursework Database http://www. coursework. info/ This document was downloaded from Coursework. Info The UKs Coursework Database http://www. coursework. info/ Close examination of Afterwards By Thomas HardyTCoursework. Info Coursework http://www. coursework. info/ Redistribution ProhibitedTCoursework. Info Coursework http://www. coursework. info/ Redistribution Prohibitedalexalexi 0Close examination of Afterwards By Thomas HardyUCoursework. Info Coursework http://www. coursework. info/ Redistribution ProhibitedualexewoUCoursework.